many Asiatics lived and worked as slaves throughout the Nile Valley.

While there were no major military campaigns into Syro-Palestine at this time, recent Middle Kingdom documents indicate these Asiatic slaves arrived in Egypt as prisoners-of-war, as tribute from officials elsewhere and through trade or purchase (Kitchen 2003:2).Some slaves were pressed into government service, some served the temples, and some were owned by wealthy officials (Kitchen 2003:2). Potiphar, a government official, purchased an Asiatic slave named Joseph from a Midianite caravan (Gn 37:36; 39:1), presumably to work on his estate in the delta region. The Brooklyn Papyrus from the Middle Kingdom period mentions “household slaves” and “stewards” (Hayes 1972), both positions held by Joseph in Potiphar’s house (Gn 39:4, 17; see Aling 2002b: 35, 37).After the accusation of Potiphar’s wife, Joseph was cast into prison (Gn 39:20). Interestingly, Egypt was one of the few nations in the ancient world to have prisons, in the classical use of the term. Since adultery was a capital offense in Egypt, the fact that Joseph was only confined to prison seems to indicate that Potiphar did not necessarily believe the accusation. Nothing is known about the length of sentences in ancient Egypt, but those not put to death were probably given life sentences. Yet, there might be a period of confinement for those waiting a decision, like the Chief Butler and Baker (Aling 2002c: 99). Joseph may have had a life sentence.The Brooklyn Papyrus also speaks about Middle Kingdom Egypt’s institution of prisons and indicates that the main prison—the “Place of Confinement”—was located at Thebes. Joseph was imprisoned with two of Pharaoh’s personal officials (Ex 39:20; 40:3), and it is reasonable to believe this was at Thebes. Twelfth Dynasty Pharaohs from Upper (southern) Egypt established their capital at Itj-tawy, near modern Lisht, in Upper Egypt’s northern border (Ray 2004:40) and this was probably the capital in Joseph’s day.After interpreting Pharaoh’s dream, Joseph was rewarded by Pharaoh with three titles (Gn 45:8). Two of them suggest Joseph had responsibilities that would have required him to spend significant time in Upper (southern) Egypt. His title “Father to Pharaoh” (Hebrew), but understood as “Father of the God” to the Egyptians, had minimal implications on where he worked. But his second title, “Lord of all Pharaoh’s House” (Hebrew), corresponded to the Egyptian “Chief Steward of the King.” Egyptian documents from the period indicate this involved supervision of royal agricultural estates and granaries. Some, of necessity, would have been around the most important city of Upper Egypt—Thebes (Aling 2003:58–59).Joseph’s third title, “Ruler of all Egypt” (Hebrew), corresponded to the most important position under Pharaoh in ancient Egypt—”Vizier.” Later New Kingdom texts indicate the Vizier supervised the government in general, was the government’s chief record keeper, appointed lower officials, controlled access to Pharaoh, welcomed foreign emissaries, oversaw agricultural production and supervised construction and industry in Egypt’s state-run economy (Aling 2003:60–61). Beyond overseeing Pharaoh’s own holdings, Joseph’s official responsibilities would have necessitated considerable time in Upper Egypt, especially during the seven years of plenty and seven years of famine.Joseph was age 30 when he was freed from prison and promoted to high office by Pharaoh (Gn 41:46). Biblical and Egyptian chronologies suggest the Pharaoh who promoted Joseph was Sesostris II (1897–1877 BC). If this is correct, the seven years of plenty were probably the final seven years of his reign (Aling 1997a: 19). During these years, Joseph would have traveled extensively overseeing agricultural harvest and storage as well as government construction projects. This, no doubt, included supervising preparation of Pharaoh’s own pyramid tomb and burial at El Lahun in Upper Egypt.The seven years of famine would then have been the first seven years of the Pharaoh’s son, Sesostris III (1878–1843). Interestingly, royal records indicate he waited until the eighth year of his reign to fight his first foreign campaign (Aling 1997a: 19). Sesostris III’s administration was known for three aspects: his foreign policy, his military and other building projects and internal reforms. As Vizier, Joseph would have had responsibilities in each realm and would have been active all over Upper Egypt (Gn 41:46), as far south as the Nubian border (Aling 1997b: 20–21).Mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut (ca. 1503–1483 BC). Hatshepsut was the daughter of Tuthmosis I and his primary wife, Queen Ahmose. Tuthmosis II, son of Tuthmosis I and a secondary wife, became the next Pharaoh. To legitimize Tuthmosis II’s religious right to the throne according to early 18th Dynasty custom, he married his half-sister, Hatshepsut. Tuthmosis II and Hatshepsut had no son, but he had a son by a secondary wife—his name would be Tuthmosis III and he was to be the next Pharaoh. When Tuthmosis II died, his son was apparently so young that his aunt (step-mother!) took charge and reigned as co-regent with her young stepson. This co-regency lasted for 22 years (Hansen 2003:16). She may well be “Pharaoh’s daughter” who drew Moses out of the Nile (Hansen 2003:19) .Sesostris III’s own pyramid tomb in Dahshur (northern Upper Egypt) was no doubt a major responsibility for Joseph. For the record, later Viziers in the reign of Sesostris III are mentioned in surviving documents, suggesting Joseph probably went into honorable retirement to live in Goshen of Lower (northern) Egypt (Aling 1997b: 21; Wood 1997:55). Interestingly, only after Joseph’s day do Egyptian documents indicate that the titles Vizier and Chief Steward were given to the same man. It is possible that Joseph was the first to hold both (Aling 2003:61).ConclusionMuch of what we know about Egypt’s New Kingdom Pharaohs comes from their statuary and reliefs carved at the Karnak Temple and their mortuary temples and tombs across the river. It is worth emphasizing that the Karnak Temple was not constructed as a public monument designed to teach living object lessons to the citizens of Egypt. Average people were not allowed inside the Temple complex. Consequently every architectural feature, however massive or beautiful, was designed by each Pharaoh to impress his god; and, possibly, to keep the very powerful priesthood as good allies.The same can be said about each Pharaoh’s tomb and mortuary temple. The amazing artwork was not created for people to see. A Pharaoh’s entire reign was devoted to preparing for the afterlife, and he invested untold wealth on his eternal destiny. The tomb was to be sealed and no one was to enter again. The Pharaohs would be appalled by the mass of tourists daily visiting their private tombs!So it is no surprise that every stone-carved text and relief within the Karnak temple complex lists a Pharaoh’s accomplishments and his expressed gratitude to the gods for making it all possible. There are no defeats recorded here and even victories are often overstated. Probably the classic example is Merenptah’s boast of the destruction of Israel. While his mention of Israel is a very important historical reference, he was absolutely wrong about Israel’s demise. They continued to live in and control their region for the next 600 years.Egyptology has demonstrated that Pharaohs often altered earlier reliefs to change the historical record. It appears that early 18th Dynasty Pharaohs destroyed the textual evidence for the Hyksos ruling in Egypt. The attempt by Tuthmosis III to erase Hatshepsut from all her monuments is a classic example (Dalman 2003:53). Thus, as we endeavor to reconstruct ancient Egyptian history, it is important to remember that the best, and often only, texts we have are simply each Pharaoh’s best effort at public relations and political spin, regardless of the facts!

Rosetta Stone Arabic